This narrative draws on open-access sources and standard historical scholarship. The sources below provide verification for specific claims made in the narrative.
Primary Sources
U.S. Library of Congress Country Studies – Cambodia
Comprehensive historical reference series produced by the U.S. Library of Congress, with studies written by area specialists and peer-reviewed by academic experts. Designed for educational and research use. The Cambodia study documents specific details of French colonial rule including corvée service requirements (90 days/year for poor peasants), usury rates (100-200% interest), taxation levels (highest per capita in Indochina), the 1916 nonviolent tax revolt, limited infrastructure investment, Vietnamese and Chinese economic dominance, and the emergence of Khmer nationalism in the 1930s-1940s.
PBS Frontline – "Cambodia: Background Facts and Related Links"
Educational background material produced by PBS Frontline/World for their Cambodia documentary series. PBS is a trusted public media organization with materials fact-checked and designed for educational use. Documents Cambodia's establishment as a French protectorate in 1863, incorporation into French Indochina in 1887, the French reassertion of control after WWII, and the granting of independence in 1953.
Sereyrath Em et al.: "History of Education in Cambodia: A Review of Literature from Past to Present" (2024)
Academic literature review examining education from prehistoric times through present, published as preprint 2024. Multi-institutional collaboration between University of Cambodia, National University of Battambang, Universitas Negeri Semarang, and Svay Rieng University. Comprehensive review with extensive bibliography providing scholarly context for French colonial educational policies (1863-1953), documenting French intervention in traditional educational systems and the contrast between colonial educational neglect and post-independence expansion.
Judy Ledgerwood: "Education in Cambodia" (Northern Illinois University)
Academic article by anthropologist Judy Ledgerwood examining Cambodia's educational system development after independence. Ledgerwood is a recognized Cambodia scholar at NIU's Center for Southeast Asian Studies; article uses Ministry of Education data. Documents that Cambodia had only one high school for locals before 1953 (Lycée Sisowath), and describes post-independence education expansion including construction of schools throughout the country and expansion of teacher training programs.
Additional Resources
Wikipedia Overview Articles
- French Protectorate of Cambodia: Comprehensive overview with extensive bibliography
- French Indochina: Broader colonial structure including Vietnam, Laos, and Cambodia
- Japanese Occupation of Cambodia: Timeline of 1941-1945 occupation with citations to academic sources